Contents

• In Memoriam
• Preface
• Participants to IMISS1 and IMISS2
• 1. Radio Antennas
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 Basic Principles
  • 1.3 The perfect Single-Dish antenna
  • 1.4 The real Single-Dish Antenna
    • 1.4.1 Systematic Deformations: Defocus, Coma, Astigmatism
    • 1.4.2 Random Errors
  • 1.5 Radiometric Relations
  
  
• 2. Millimetre Interferometers
  • 2.1 Basic principle
  • 2.2 The Heterodyne Interferometer
    • 2.2.1 Source Size Effects
    • 2.2.2 Finite Bandwidth
  • 2.3 Delay Tracking and Frequency Conversion
  • 2.4 Fringe Stopping and Complex Correlator
  • 2.5 Fourier Transform and Related Approximations
  • 2.6 Array Geometry & Baseline Measurements
  
  
• 3. Millimetre Very Long Baseline Interferometry
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 mm-VLBI Arrays
    • 3.2.1 The CMVA Array
    • 3.2.2 The VLBA Array
  • 3.3 Available Resolution
  • 3.4 Polarization Observations
  • 3.5 The Feasibility of mm-VLBI: Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Detections
  • 3.6 From observations to correlations, step by step
    • 3.6.1 Observing Techniques
    • 3.6.2 Data Recording
    • 3.6.3 Correlation Time
    • 3.6.4 Phase Correction
    • 3.6.5 Correlation
  • 3.7 The observable sources with mm-VLBI
    • 3.7.1 Which Kind of sources can we observe
    • 3.7.2 The field of view
    • 3.7.3 An example: mm-VLBI Observations of QSO 3C273
  
  
• 4. Introduction to Optical/Near-Infrared Interferometry
  • 4.1 Introduction
    • 4.1.1 Brief history of optical interferometry
    • 4.1.2 Current and future optical interferometers
  • 4.2 Optical versus millimeter radio interferometry
    • 4.2.1 Common issues
    • 4.2.2 Main differences
  • 4.3 Description of optical interferometers
    • 4.3.1 Functional description
    • 4.3.2 Specific applications
  • 4.4 Formation of the interferometric fringes
    • 4.4.1 Beam combination
    • 4.4.2 Fringe coding and detection
  • 4.5 Main challenges in interferometry
    • 4.5.1 Atmosphere turbulence
    • 4.5.2 Other atmosphere systematics
    • 4.5.3 Fighting the atmosphere: complexity and accuracy
    • 4.5.4 Noise sources - Sensitivity
  • 4.6 Conclusion
    • Figure credits
    • Internet resources
  
  
• 5. Receivers : an overview for non-specialists
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Coupling optics
  • 5.3 Why we need heterodyne receivers
  • 5.4 Local oscillator system
  • 5.5 Local oscillator injection
  • 5.6 Photon-assisted tunneling
  • 5.7 Mixer
  • 5.8 Cryostat
  • 5.9 Actual receivers
  
  
• 6. Cross Correlators
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Basic Theory
  • 6.3 The Correlator in Practice
    • 6.3.1 Digitization of the input signal and clipping correction
    • 6.3.2 Time lag windows and spectral resolution
    • 6.3.3 Main limitations
  • 6.4 The correlator on Plateau de Bure
    • 6.4.1 The third-generation correlator
  • 6.5 Appendix
    • 6.5.1 Summary of definitions
    • 6.5.2 Clipping correction for 4-level quantization
  
  
• 7. LO System and Signal Transport
  • 7.1 An Heterodyne Interferometer
    • 7.1.1 The simple interferometer
    • 7.1.2 The heterodyne interferometer
    • 7.1.3 Frequency conversion
    • 7.1.4 Signal phase
  • 7.2 Delay lines requirements
    • 7.2.1 Single sideband processing in a finite bandwidth
    • 7.2.2 Double sideband system
  • 7.3 sideband separation
    • 7.3.1 Fringe rate method
    • 7.3.2 Phase switching method
  • 7.4 The PdB Signal and LO transport system
    • 7.4.1 Signal path
    • 7.4.2 LO generation
    • 7.4.3 Further signal processing
    • 7.4.4 Phase stability requirements
    • 7.4.5 Cable electrical length control
  • 7.5 Next generation instruments
  
  
• 8. The Plateau de Bure Interferometer
  • 8.1 History
  • 8.2 Description
  • 8.3 Array operation
    • 8.3.1 Array calibration
    • 8.3.2 Array observations
  • 8.4 Proposal submission and contact people
  
  
• 9. Bandpass and Phase Calibration
  • 9.1 Definitions and formalism
    • 9.1.1 Baseline based vs antenna based gains
    • 9.1.2 Gain corrections
  • 9.2 Bandpass calibration
    • 9.2.1 Bandpass measurement
    • 9.2.2 IF passband calibration
    • 9.2.3 RF bandpass calibration
    • 9.2.4 Sideband calibration
  • 9.3 Phase calibration
    • 9.3.1 Phase referencing by a nearby point source
    • 9.3.2 Phase referencing by a point source in the primary beam
    • 9.3.3 Phase referencing using another band or another frequency
  
  
• 10. Atmospheric Absorption
  • 10.1 The physical and chemical structure of the Atmosphere
    • 10.1.1 Constituents of the atmosphere
    • 10.1.2 Thermodynamics of the air
    • 10.1.3 Hydrostatic equilibrium
    • 10.1.4 Water
  • 10.2 Atmospheric radiative transfer in the mm/submm
    • 10.2.1 Introduction
    • 10.2.2 Unpolarized radiative transfer equation
    • 10.2.3 Spectroscopic parameters
    • 10.2.4 Line shapes
    • 10.2.5 Non-resonant absorption
    • 10.2.6 Radiative transfer through atmospheric hydrometeors
  • 10.3 Fourier Transform Spectroscopy for site testing
    • 10.3.1 FTS measurements at Mauna Kea
    • 10.3.2 FTS measurements at Atacama (future ALMA site)
  • 10.4 Atmospheric absorption evaluation
    • 10.4.1 Correction for atmospheric absorption, $T_A^*$
  • 10.5 Phase fluctuation evaluation
    • 10.5.1 Cause of Phase Fluctuations
    • 10.5.2 Simulations of phase fluctuations
    • 10.5.3 Phase Correction Methods
    • 10.5.4 Example of phase correction
  
  
• 11. Atmospheric Fluctuations
  • 11.1 Introduction
  • 11.2 Hydrodynamical basics of turbulent motion
  • 11.3 Statistical properties of turbulence
  • 11.4 Remote sounding techniques
  • 11.5 Current phase correction at IRAM
  • 11.6 Phase correction during off-line data reduction
  • 11.7 Frequently asked questions
  
  
• 12. Amplitude and Flux Calibration
  • 12.1 Definition and Formalism
  • 12.2 Single-dish Calibration of the Amplitude
    • 12.2.1 Low opacity approximation and implication for $T_{cal}$
    • 12.2.2 Absolute errors on $T_{cal}$ due to instrumental parameters
    • 12.2.3 Relative errors or errors on $T_{cal}^L/T_{cal}^U$
    • 12.2.4 Estimate of the thermal noise
  • 12.3 Flux Calibration (visitor's nightmare)
    • 12.3.1 Introduction
    • 12.3.2 Calibration procedure at Bure
    • 12.3.3 Determining the absolute flux scale on a project
    • 12.3.4 Possible biases and remedies
    • 12.3.5 The program FLUX
  • 12.4 Interferometric Calibration of the Amplitude
    • 12.4.1 Correction for the antenna gain $\Gamma _i(t)$
    • 12.4.2 Estimate of the atmospheric decorrelation factor $f$
    • 12.4.3 Fitting Splines: the last step
    • 12.4.4 A few final checks
  
  
• 13. Calibration of data in Practice
  • 13.1 Introduction
    • 13.1.1 Contents of the account
    • 13.1.2 Before starting the data reduction
    • 13.1.3 Activating the CLIC environment
  • 13.2 The ``First Look'' procedure
  • 13.3 The ``Standard Calibration (2-receivers)'' procedure
    • 13.3.1 Inputs
    • 13.3.2 Actions or Outputs
    • 13.3.3 Results of the calibration
  
  
• 14. $UV$ Plane Analysis
  • 14.1 $uv$ tables
    • 14.1.1 $uv$ table contents
    • 14.1.2 How to create a $uv$ Table
  • 14.2 $uv$ data plots
  • 14.3 Data editing
  • 14.4 Position shift
  • 14.5 Averaging
    • 14.5.1 Data compression
    • 14.5.2 Circular averaging
  • 14.6 Model fitting
    • 14.6.1 Position measurement
  • 14.7 Continuum source subtraction
  • 14.8 Self calibration by a point source
  
  
• 15. The Imaging Principles
  • 15.1 Fourier Transform
    • 15.1.1 Direct Fourier Transform
    • 15.1.2 Fast Fourier Transform
    • 15.1.3 Gridding Process
  • 15.2 Sampling & Aliasing
  • 15.3 Convolution and Aliasing
  • 15.4 Error Analysis
  • 15.5 Weighing and Tapering
  • 15.6 The GILDAS implementation
  • 15.7 Deconvolution
    • 15.7.1 The CLEAN method
    • 15.7.2 Interpretation of CLEAN
    • 15.7.3 The CLEAN variants
    • 15.7.4 The GILDAS implementation
  
  
• 16. Advanced Imaging Methods: WIPE
  • 16.1 Introduction
  • 16.2 Object space
  • 16.3 Experimental data space
  • 16.4 Image reconstruction process
    • 16.4.1 Synthesized aperture
    • 16.4.2 Synthetic beam
    • 16.4.3 Regularization frequency list
    • 16.4.4 Data space
    • 16.4.5 Object representation space
    • 16.4.6 Objective functional
    • 16.4.7 Uniqueness and robustness
  • 16.5 Implementation of WIPE at IRAM
  • Glossary
  
  
• 17. Mosaicing
  • 17.1 Introduction
  • 17.2 Image formation in a mosaic
  • 17.3 Mosaicing in practice
  • 17.4 A CLEAN-based algorithm for mosaic deconvolution
  • 17.5 Artifacts and instrumental effects
  • 17.6 Concluding remarks
  
  
• 18. Imaging in Practice
  • 18.1 Visualisation
  • 18.2 Photometry
    • 18.2.1 From Flux density to Brightness temperature
    • 18.2.2 Accuracy of Flux density estimates
  • 18.3 Short Spacings
    • 18.3.1 UV_SINGLE
  • 18.4 Dirty Tricks
    • 18.4.1 MOMENTS
    • 18.4.2 Continuum Subtraction
  
  
• 19. Low Signal-to-noise Analysis
  • 19.1 Continuum Source
    • 19.1.1 Flux measurement
    • 19.1.2 Other parameters
  • 19.2 Spectral Line Sources
  
  
• 20. Basic Principles of Radio Astrometry
  • 20.1 Introduction and Basic Formalism
  • 20.2 The Phase Equation
  • 20.3 Determination of Source Coordinates and Errors
  • 20.4 Accurate Position Measurements with the IRAM Interferometer
    • 20.4.1 Absolute positions
    • 20.4.2 Relative Positions and Self-calibration Techniques
  • 20.5 Sources of Position Uncertainty
    • 20.5.1 Known Limitations
    • 20.5.2 Practical Details
  
  
• 21. Mm versus Optical Interferometry: a qualitative comparison
  • 21.1 The basic equation of interferometry
    • 21.1.1 Additive interferometry
    • 21.1.2 Multiplicative interferometry
  • 21.2 Getting the fringes
  • 21.3 Atmospheric behaviour and noise properties
  
  
• Bibliography